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1 parallel universe
I've always loved the stories about parallel universes. — Мне всегда нравились истории о параллельных вселенных.
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2 universe
['juːnɪvɜːs]сущ.1) Вселенная, мирозданиеThe Ptolemaic theory put the Earth at the centre of the universe. — Птолемей полагал, что Земля находится в центре Вселенной.
2)а) сфера, область, мирIn the days when IBM was still the unchallenged ruler of the computer universe … — В те дни, когда Ай-би-эм всё ещё безраздельно властвовала в компьютерном мире …
б) круг (интересов, общения), мир; жизньThen in 1981, when their youngest child, daughter Molly, left for preschool, Dick encouraged his wife to expand her universe beyond the family's needs. — Затем в 1981 г., когда их младшая дочь Молли пошла в детский сад, Дик посоветовал жене не ограничивать свою жизнь лишь домом и семьей.
She is a loving mother whose two children are the centre of her universe. — Она любящая мать, для которой двое её детей являются смыслом её жизни.
в) совокупность, группа, множествоWell, certainly, Bobbie, the universe of possible suspects is greatly narrowed by the fact that … — Конечно, Бобби, круг подозреваемых значительно сужается благодаря тому обстоятельству, что...
Contracts awarded to companies owned by women and members of minority groups amounted to only 2 percent of the whole universe of contracts, a very small proportion. — Подряды компаниям, которыми владеют женщины или представители меньшинств, составили только 2% от всей совокупности контрактов, что очень мало.
3)а) мир, Земля- Miss UniverseBill Gates, richest man in the universe — Билл Гейтс, самый богатый человек в мире
б) человечество4)а) наша Галактика, Млечный Путьб) галактика5) лог. универсумuniverse of discourse — универсум рассуждения или рассмотрения, предметная область
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3 parallel
1. adjective1) parallelparallel bars — (Gymnastics) Barren, der
2) (fig.): (similar) vergleichbar2. nounbe parallel — sich (Dat.) [genau] entsprechen
1) Parallele, diethis has no parallel — dazu gibt es keine Parallele
2) (Electr.)3) (Geog.)parallel [of latitude] — Breitenkreis, der
3. transitive verbthe 42nd parallel — der 42. Breitengrad
gleichkommen (+ Dat.)* * *['pærəlel] 1. adjective1) ((of straight lines) going in the same direction and always staying the same distance apart: The road is parallel to/with the river.) parallel2. adverb(in the same direction but always about the same distance away: We sailed parallel to the coast for several days.) parallel3. noun1) (a line parallel to another: Draw a parallel to this line.) die Parallele2) (a likeness or state of being alike: Is there a parallel between the British Empire and the Roman Empire?) die Parallele3) (a line drawn from east to west across a map etc at a fixed distance from the equator: The border between Canada and the United States follows the forty-ninth parallel.) der Breitengrad4. verb(to be equal to: His stupidity can't be paralleled.) etwas Entsprechendes finden- academic.ru/53505/parallelogram">parallelogram* * *par·al·lel[ˈpærəlel, AM ˈper-]Hills Road is \parallel to Mill Road die Hills Road verläuft parallel zur Mill Road2. (corresponding)\parallel example Parallelbeispiel nt\parallel experiments Parallelversuche pl3. ELECin \parallel parallel geschaltetII. n▪ without \parallel ohnegleichento draw a \parallel einen Vergleich ziehen\parallel [of latitude] Breitenkreis mIII. vt▪ to \parallel sthnot \paralleled beispiellosto run \parallel to sth zu etw dat parallel verlaufen* * *['prəlel]1. adj1) lines, streets parallel; (COMPUT) parallelat this point the road and river are parallel — an dieser Stelle verlaufen Straße und Fluss parallel (zueinander)
parallel to or with —
a parallel case — ein Parallelfall m, ein vergleichbarer Fall
the two systems developed along parallel lines — die Entwicklung der beiden Systeme verlief vergleichbar
he argues along parallel lines to me — er argumentiert ähnlich wie ich
2. advto run parallel (roads, careers) — parallel verlaufen (to sth zu etw)
3. nthe 49th parallel — der 49. Breitengrad
3) (ELEC)4. vt (fig)gleichen (+dat)a case parallelled only by... — ein Fall, zu dem es nur eine einzige Parallele gibt, nämlich...
it is parallelled by... — es ist vergleichbar mit...
* * *parallel [ˈpærəlel]A adj1. MATH, MUS, TECH parallel (with, to zu, mit):at the parallel bars am Barren;parallel connection → B 4;parallel cousins Kinder zweier Brüder oder zweier Schwestern;run parallel to parallel verlaufen zu2. fig parallel, gleich(gerichtet, -laufend):parallel case Parallelfall m;research work on parallel lines Forschungsarbeit f in der gleichen Richtung;parallel passage gleichlautende Stelle, Parallele f (in einem Text)B s1. MATH und fig Parallele f:draw a parallel to eine Parallele ziehen zu;have close parallels with eine starke Ähnlichkeit haben mit;in parallel with parallel zu2. MATH Parallelität f (auch fig Gleichheit)4. ELEK Parallel-, Nebeneinanderschaltung f:in parallel parallel oder nebeneinander(geschaltet)5. Gegenstück n, Entsprechung f:have no parallel nicht seinesgleichen haben, einzigartig sein;without (a) parallel ohnegleichen6. MIL Parallele f, Quergraben mC v/t prät und pperf -leled, besonders Br -lelled2. anpassen, angleichen ( beide:with, to dat)6. ELEK parallel schaltenpar. abk1. paragraph Par.2. parallel3. parenthesis4. parish Gde.* * *1. adjective1) parallelparallel bars — (Gymnastics) Barren, der
2) (fig.): (similar) vergleichbar2. nounbe parallel — sich (Dat.) [genau] entsprechen
1) Parallele, die2) (Electr.)3) (Geog.)parallel [of latitude] — Breitenkreis, der
3. transitive verbthe 42nd parallel — der 42. Breitengrad
gleichkommen (+ Dat.)* * *adj.parallel (Mathematik) adj.parallel adj. n.Gegenstück n.Parallele f. -
4 Bibliography
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(1997a). Cognitive science and the symbolic operations of human and artificial intelligence: Theory and research into the intellective processes. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1997b). The general unified theory of intelligence: Central conceptions and specific application to domains of cognitive science. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1998a). Cognitive science and the mind- body problem: From philosophy to psychology to artificial intelligence to imaging of the brain. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1998b). Language and thought in humans and computers: Theory and research in psychology, artificial intelligence, and neural science. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1998c). The ultimate objectives of artificial intelligence: Theoretical and research foundations, philosophical and psychological implications. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1999). The human mind according to artificial intelligence: Theory, re search, and implications. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (2000). Scientific discovery processes in humans and computers: Theory and research in psychology and artificial intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wall, R. (1972). Introduction to mathematical linguistics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.■ Wallas, G. (1926). The Art of Thought. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co.■ Wason, P. (1977). Self contradictions. In P. Johnson-Laird & P. Wason (Eds.), Thinking: Readings in cognitive science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.■ Wason, P. C., & P. N. Johnson-Laird. (1972). Psychology of reasoning: Structure and content. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.■ Watson, J. (1930). Behaviorism. New York: W. W. Norton.■ Watzlawick, P. (1984). Epilogue. In P. Watzlawick (Ed.), The invented reality. New York: W. W. Norton, 1984.■ Weinberg, S. (1977). The first three minutes: A modern view of the origin of the uni verse. New York: Basic Books.■ Weisberg, R. W. (1986). Creativity: Genius and other myths. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Bibliography
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5 Language
Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)[A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling itSolving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into anotherLANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own LanguageThe forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)[It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human InteractionLanguage cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language
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